My Aim in Life

There are two things to aim at in life: first, to get what you want, and after that to enjoy it. Only the wisest of mankind achieve the second. Logan P. Smith People have set their own aim depending upon their abilities. Some people are doctors, engineers, Charter Accountants, pilots, teachers and many more. Our life is too short so we have to strive to attain our aim with all our hard work. The main objective for achieving the aim is to get material pleasures, mental happiness as well as satisfaction. Once a person chives his aim he can live a prosperous life.The mere act of aiming at something big, makes you big. Charcoal Nehru My aim in life is neither to collect money nor for fame. It is my desire to become a well-qualified doctor. I do not just wish to be an ordinary doctor. The world remembers with thankfulness the name of the man who gave to the world vaccination. The world will remember forever the man who gave us penicillin. As a doctor I want to serve the humanity. Don't ai m for success if you want it; just do what you love and believe in, and it will come naturally.David Frost have an ambition to do something in this world so, great as the doctors and the courageous founders did in the past. I would like to give the world some new drugs and injections that will cure some of the diseases that people are still suffering from. An aim in life is the only fortune worth finding. Robert Louis Stevenson know, my profession is very dignified and it will help me to get peace and satisfaction in life. It provides us best chances of service. Sympathy to human being is the sympathy to one own self. Quotations About this essay. Future favors the bold.An early death is better than an aimless life. A noble aim is simply a noble deed. My goal in life is to survive. Everything else is just a bonus. The greater danger for most of us lies not in setting our aim too high and falling short; but in setting our aim too low, and achieving our mark. Michelangelo The aim of ar t is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance. Aristotle. Aim above morality. Be not simply good, be good for something. My Aim in Life There are two things to aim at in life: first, to get what you want, and after that to enjoy it. Only the wisest of mankind achieve the second. Logan P. Smith People have set their own aim depending upon their abilities. Some people are doctors, engineers, Charter Accountants, pilots, teachers and many more. Our life is too short so we have to strive to attain our aim with all our hard work. The main objective for achieving the aim is to get material pleasures, mental happiness as well as satisfaction. Once a person chives his aim he can live a prosperous life.The mere act of aiming at something big, makes you big. Charcoal Nehru My aim in life is neither to collect money nor for fame. It is my desire to become a well-qualified doctor. I do not just wish to be an ordinary doctor. The world remembers with thankfulness the name of the man who gave to the world vaccination. The world will remember forever the man who gave us penicillin. As a doctor I want to serve the humanity. Don't ai m for success if you want it; just do what you love and believe in, and it will come naturally.David Frost have an ambition to do something in this world so, great as the doctors and the courageous founders did in the past. I would like to give the world some new drugs and injections that will cure some of the diseases that people are still suffering from. An aim in life is the only fortune worth finding. Robert Louis Stevenson know, my profession is very dignified and it will help me to get peace and satisfaction in life. It provides us best chances of service. Sympathy to human being is the sympathy to one own self. Quotations About this essay. Future favors the bold.An early death is better than an aimless life. A noble aim is simply a noble deed. My goal in life is to survive. Everything else is just a bonus. The greater danger for most of us lies not in setting our aim too high and falling short; but in setting our aim too low, and achieving our mark. Michelangelo The aim of ar t is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance. Aristotle. Aim above morality. Be not simply good, be good for something. My Aim in Life ARTICLE IN PRESS Microbiological Research 161 (2006) 93—101 www. elsevier. de/micres Changes in microbial and soil properties following amendment with treated and untreated olive mill wastewater Ali Mekki, Abdelha? dh Dhouib, Sami SayadiA Laboratoire des Bioprocedes,Centre de Biotechnologie de Sfax, BP: ‘‘K’’ 3038 Sfax, Tunisie ? ? Received 8 June 2005; accepted 15 June 2005 KEYWORDS Microbial community; Olive mill wastewater; Polyphenols; Soil respiration Summary We investigated the effect of untreated and biologically treated olive mill wastewater (OMW) spreading on the soil characteristics and the microbial communities.The water holding capacity, the salinity and the content of total organic carbon, humus, total nitrogen, phosphate and potassium increased when the spread amounts of the treated or untreated OMW increased. The OMW treated soil exhibited signi? cantly higher respiration compared to the control soil. However, the C-CO2/Ctot ratio decre ased from 1. 7 in the control soil to 0. 5 in the soil amended with 100 m3 haA1 of untreated OMW. However, it slightly decreased to 1. 15 in the soil amended with 400 m3 haA1 of treated OMW.The treated OMW increased the total mesophylic number while the number of fungi and nitri? ers decreased. Actinomycetes and spore-forming bacteria were neither sensitive to treated nor to untreated OMW. The total coliforms increased with higher doses of treated and untreated OMW. A toxic effect of the untreated OMW appeared from 100 m3 haA1. This toxicity was more signi? cant with 200 m3 haA1, where micro? ora of total mesophilic, yeasts and moulds, actinomycetes, and nitri? ers were seriously inhibited except for total coliforms and spore-forming bacteria. & 2005 Elsevier GmbH.All rights reserved. Introduction The olive mill wastewater (OMW) is a critical problem, especially in the Mediterranean area, where the olive cultivation is widespread and huge amounts of this ef? uent 30 millions m3 yA1 worldACorresponding author. Tel. /fax: +216 74 440 452. wide and 500 000 m3 yA1 in Tunisia alone, are annually produced (Sayadi and Ellouz, 1995; Casa et al. , 2003). This waste contains an enormous supply of organic matter, COD between 40 and 210 g dmA3 and BOD5 between 10 and 150 g dmA3 (Feria, 2000). Some characteristics of this materialE-mail address: sami. [email  protected] rnrt. tn (S. Sayadi). 0944-5013/$ – see front matter & 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. micres. 2005. 06. 001 ARTICLE IN PRESS 94 are favourable for agriculture since this ef? uent is rich in organic matter, nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg). The organic fraction of this wastewater includes sugars, tannins, poly phenols, poly alcohols, pectins, lipids, and proteins (Mulinacci et al. , 2001; LesageMeessen et al. , 2001). For these reasons, increasing attention has been given to ? d the best methods to spread OMW on agricultural lands and to recyc le both the organic matter and the nutritive elements in the soil crop system. Moreover, agricultural irrigation with wastewater ef? uents became a common practice in arid and semiarid regions, where it was used as a readily available and inexpensive option to fresh water (Angelakis et al. , 1999; Oved et al. , 2001). Fresh OMW was used as a fertilizer in the horticulture and in the olive cultivation (Cox et al. , 1997; Ben Rouina et al. , 1999; Ammar and Ben Rouina, 1999; Cereti et al. , 2004).However, biodegradation of this waste in the nature is dif? cult because it contains a strong antibacterial effect exerted, by various phenolic compounds (Yesilada et al. , 1999; Sayadi et al. , 2000; Rinaldi et al. , 2003). Before its utilization in the irrigation, OMW was treated by several processes such as aerobic treatment, anaerobic digestion and composting process (Sayadi and Ellouz, 1992, 1995; Ehaliotis et al. , 1999; Paredes et al. , 2000; Kissi et al. , 2001; Marques, 2001; Casa et al. , 2003; D’Annibale et al. , 2004). Some Mediterranean countries established laws about soil capability to endure theOMW application, particularly in Italy (Law N1 574, 1996). The maximum amount of OMW tolerated in the ? elds is 80 and 50 m3 haA1 for OMW obtained by centrifuge and pressure extraction techniques, respectively (Law N1 574, 1996). The addition of such compounds may cause signi? cant shifts in the structure and the function of the microbial community, which in turn may in? uence the viability of the soil for agriculture. The effect of the OMW on the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil are well documented (Cabrera et al. , 1996; Cox et al. 1997; Sierra et al. , 2001; Zenjari and Nejmeddine, 2001; Rinaldi et al. , 2003). However, these studies did not deal with the effect of this waste on the microbial community of the soil (Moreno et al. , 1987; Paredes et al. , 1987; Kotsou et al. , 2004). An integrated approach using a pre-treatment of the OMW with the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium followed by an anaerobic digestion was developed in our laboratory in order to reuse the ef? uent in agriculture (Sayadi and Ellouz, 1995). Thus, the aim of our work was to investigate A. Mekki et al. he effect of untreated and biologically treated OMW on the soil characteristics and on the microbial communities. Materials and methods OMW origin The fresh OMW was taken from a three-phase discontinuous extraction factory located in Sfax, Tunisia. Biological treatment of OMW The treated OMW was obtained with an integrated process based on aerobic fungal pre-treatment using P. chrysosporium DSMZ 6909 followed by a decantation step then anaerobic digestion (Sayadi and Ellouz, 1995). The characteristics of the treated and untreated OMW are given in Table 1. Table 1.Chemical and physical properties of untreated and biological treated OMW Parameter pH (25 1C) Electric conductivity (25 1C) (dS mA1) Salinity (g lA1) Colour (absorbance 395 nm) UV absorbance 280 nm BOD5 (g lA1) COD (g lA1) Glucose (g lA1) Residual solids (g lA1) Total solids (%) Total volatiles (%) Total suspended solids (g lA1) Volatiles suspended solids (g lA1) Nitrogen (g lA1) Phosphorous (g lA1) Potassium (g lA1) o-di-phenols (g lA1) Total poly phenols (g lA1) Residual oils (g lA1) Toxicity by LUMIStox (% inhibition) Untreated OMW 5. 46 8. 7 5. 9 82 368 34. 117 12 26 11. 4 9. 3 8. 9 6. 5 1. 58 0. 84 5. 2 8. 395 9. 200 9. 2 100 Treated OMW 7. 6 11. 3 9. 7 44 38 4. 5 21. 9 ND ND 2. 5 1. 42 3. 5 2. 7 1. 72 1. 12 4. 4 1. 265 1. 578 Not detected 38 ARTICLE IN PRESS Changes in microbial and soil properties following amendment 95 Study sites and sampling The study area consisted in a ? eld of olive trees located in Chaal at 60 Km to the South-West of ? Sfax, Tunisia, North latitude 341 30 , East longitude 101 200 . The mean annual rainfall is 200 mm (Ben Rouina et al. , 2001). The ? eld was divided in ? ve plots.Three experimental plots P1, P2, and P3 we re annually amended in February with 50, 100, and 200 m3 haA1 of untreated OMW respectively (Ben Rouina, 1994). The plot P4, was annually amended with 400 m3 haA1 of the treated OMW. The ? fth plot, plot C, was not amended and served as control. Soil samples were collected from different parts of each plot from 0 to 10 cm deep, using a soil auger. All soil samples, taken from each plot were then mixed, air-dried, sieved with a mesh size of 450 mm and stored at 4 1C prior to use. Water content was immediately determined before airdrying the sample. xtracted with 1 M solution of ammonium acetate (pH 7) using a soil/solution ratio of 1/10 (w/ v). The suspension was analysed with an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES, ARL 3580). Microtoxicity determination The microtoxicity test consisted in the inhibition of the bioluminescence of Vibrio ? scheri LCK480 using the LUMIStox system (Dr. Lange GmbH, Duesseldorf, Germany) and according to ISO 11348-2 (1998). Pe rcentage inhibition of the bioluminescence was achieved by mixing 0. 5 ml of OMW and 0. 5 ml luminescent bacterial suspension.After 15 min exposure at 15 1C, the decrease in light emission was measured. The toxicity of the OMW was expressed as the percent of the inhibition of bioluminescence (%IB) relative to a non-contaminated reference. A positive control (7. 5% NaCl) was included for each test. Physicochemical analyses Analysis of ortho-diphenols: The ortho-diphenols concentration in the OMW was quanti? ed by means of Folin-Ciocalteau colorimetric method (Box, 1983) using caffeic acid as standard. The absorbance was determined at l ? 765 nm. Analysis of total polyphenols: OMW was centrifuged at 7000 rpm for 20 min.The supernatant was extracted three times with ethyl acetate. The collected organic fraction was dried and evaporated under vacuum. The residue was extracted two times with dichloromethane in order to remove the non-phenolic fraction (lipids, aliphatic, sugars). The liq uid phase was discarded while the washed residue was weighed and analysed by gas chromatography coupled with the mass spectroscopy technique to con? rm the phenolic structure of the extracted compounds. COD was determined according to Knechtel (1978) standard method. BOD5 was determined by the manometric method with a respirometer (BSB-Controller Model 620 T (WTW)).Dry weight and moisture content were determined by weighing samples before and after drying overnight at 105 1C. Organic matter was determined after furnacing samples at 550 1C for 4 h. Total carbon and nitrogen were determined by dry combustion (TOC Analyser multi-N/C 1000). Ca, K, Na, and Mg analyses, the air-dried soil was Respirometric test Biological activity in the soil was achieved by measuring CO2 evolution in the aerobic condition ? (Ohlinger, 1995). The soil sample was humidi? ed to 50% of its water holding capacity and incubated at 30 1C in the dark. The CO2 evolved was trapped in an NaOH solution and titrated with HCl.Microbial estimation Ten grams of the soil sample was suspended in an erlenmeyer ? ask containing 90 ml of a sterile solution (0. 2% of sodium polyphosphate (NaPO3)n in distilled water, pH 7. 0) and 10 g of sterile glass beads (1. 5 mm diameter). The ? ask was shaken at 200 rpm for 2 h. Serial 10-fold dilutions of the samples in a 0. 85% NaCl solution were plated in triplicate on PCA at 30 1C for total bacterial counts, on Sabouraud containing chloramphenicol at 25 1C for yeasts and moulds, on DCL at 37 1C for total coliforms, and on soil extract agar at 30 1C for actinomycetes.Soil extract agar was prepared as follows: 1 kg of soil was added to 1 l of distilled water and agitated energetically. Supernatant was ? ltered. Its pH was adjusted to 7 and sterilized at 121 1C for 20 min twice. A 200 ml of this extract and 20 g of Agar-agar were added to 800 ml of distilled water and sterilized at 121 1C for 20 min. Penicillin G, Cycloheximide, Ampicillin and Nistatin were dissolv ed in water and sterilized by ? ltration (0. 22 mm) and ARTICLE IN PRESS 96 were added at ? nal concentration of 1, 50, 10 and 50 mg lA1, respectively.For spore-forming bacteria counts, aliquots were heated for 10 min at 80 1C before spreading on PCA and incubation at 37 1C. Ammonia and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria were enumerated by the most probable number (MPN) procedure (Trolldenier, 1995). Culture tubes supplemented either with ammonium or nitrite were inoculated with serially diluted soil suspension. After an extended incubation of 4 weeks at 28 1C, acidi? cation of the medium was recorded by taking colour change as an indication for growth of ammonium oxidizers and the absence of nitrite as an indication for growth of nitrite oxidizers.Subsequently, the MPN was calculated in accordance with the table of MPN values. The total nitri? ers count was the sum of the oxidizers of ammonium and of nitrite. Each soil sample was analysed in duplicate and the dilution series were plated in triplicate for each medium. All these counts were expressed as colony forming units (CFU) per gram of dried soil (24 h at 105 1C). The total nitri? ers count was expressed as MPN per gram of dried soil. A. Mekki et al. high content of phenolics (9. 2 g lA1). This toxicity was reduced to 38%IB in treated OMW which contained only 1. 8 g lA1 of phenolics. The COD (21. 9 g lA1) of treated OMW remained high and far exceeded the standard for direct discharge to a natural water body. Several costly steps are necessary if we want to reach the Tunisian standard (0. 09 g lA1). The treated OMW contained appreciable concentrations of N, P, and K. This ef? uent was free of pathogens, relatively not toxic and contained low concentrations of heavy metals. Apart from COD, BOD5 and black colour, the quality of treated OMW was high and could be used for irrigation after ? eld tests.Analytical results of soils pro? les A darker soil colour was observed in the plots amended with OMW. After drying, the amended soils showed higher compactness and hardness. Soils were sampled and analysed in a particularly dry year in Tunisia. Only weak precipitations were recorded in February, May and November. The soil water content was very weak and it varied between 0. 8% and 1. 15% in the samples collected in September (Table 2). The pH increased to 9. 2 when P4 soil was amended with treated OMW and slightly decreased to 7. 4 when P3 soil was amended with raw OMW.Table 2 shows also that salinity of the amended soil increased proportionally with quantity of treated or untreated OMW. The content of the nutrients as total carbon (Ctot), total nitrogen (Ntot), P, K, Mg and humus increased after spreading Results Characterisation of the ef? uents Untreated OMW totally inhibited V. ?scheri (Table 1). This toxicity was essentially due to its Table 2. Results of the air-dried soils characterization C 89. 82 7. 44 2. 74 1. 14 7. 9 69 0. 02 0. 001 0. 14 0. 25 0. 02 14. 70 0. 23 0. 0312 2. 001 4 8. 7 P1 ND ND ND Characteristics 9 8 Particle size > > Sand = < distribution ? ? clay > > ; : in control soil Silt Moisture content (%) pH (KCl) Salinity (mg kgA1) P (mg gA1) P (water soluble) (mg gA1) K (mg gA1) Mg (mg gA1) Na (mg gA1) Ca (mg gA1) Ntot (mg gA1) N-NH4 (mg gA1) Ctot (mg gA1) Humus (mg gA1) C/N P2 ND ND ND 1. 15 7. 6 336. 5 0. 08 0. 016 1. 60 0. 40 0. 03 16. 20 0. 95 0. 055 15. 504 31 16. 32 P3 ND ND ND 1. 07 7. 4 447. 5 0. 08 0. 12 1. 80 0. 37 0. 04 15. 80 0. 91 0. 089 16. 999 34 18. 68 P4 ND ND ND 0. 82 9. 2 473 0. 05 0. 027 2. 42 0. 33 0. 31 14. 70 0. 45 0. 088 4. 001 8 8. 89 1. 13 7. 9 240 0. 03 0. 003 1. 05 0. 35 0. 17 19. 80 0. 56 0. 044 8. 002 16 14. 29P1, P2, and P3: Soils amended with 50, 100, and 200 m3 haA1 of untreated OMW respectively; P4: Soil amended with 400 m3 haA1 of the treated OMW. The plot C was not amended and served as control. ND: not done. ARTICLE IN PRESS Changes in microbial and soil properties following amendment the treated or untreated OMW. The C /N ratio remained constant in the soil amended with treated OMW while it increased proportionally in the soils amended with untreated OMW. Phenolic compounds migrated in soil according to their molecular mass. Polyphenols were adsorbed in the soil upper layers while monomers migrated in depth.Indeed phenolic monomers were detected at 1. 2 m depth 1 year after irrigation with untreated OMW (data not shown). C-CO2 18 16 C-CO2 and Ctot (mg g-1) 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 Ctot C-CO2/Ctot 1. 8 1. 6 1. 4 C-CO2/Ctot 1. 2 1 0. 8 0. 6 0. 4 0. 2 0 C P1 P2 Soil P3 P4 97 Soil respiration A respirometric test was achieved on soils sampled in September. CO2 production increased with OMW amendment (Fig. 1). For the treated OMW, a more pronounced CO2 production rate was shown since the ? rst week of incubation. However, for the untreated OMW, the start-up of the CO2 production was delayed to the 3rd week of respiration.The speci? c respiration rate expressed as the ratio of C-CO2/Ctot for the different soil samples is shown in Fig. 2. The amendment of the soil with 200 m3 haA1 increased the carbon content to 17 mg gA1 while the speci? c respiration remained very low. However, the amendment with 400 m3 haA1 of treated OMW did not much affect the speci? c respiration of the soil. 0 Figure 2. Speci? c respiration C-CO2/Ctot, cumulative CCO2, and total carbon Ctot of the soil samples studied. shown). An increase in the total micro? ora count was observed in P1, P2 and P4 in all dates of sampling (Table 3).However, at 200 m3 haA1 of untreated OMW, the total bacterial counts remained much higher compared to the control soil, but lower compared to the other doses of OMW. Effect on soil microbiology Viable mesophilic micro? ora Generally, the total micro? ora increased with the soil humidity. OMW enhanced the water holding capacity of the soil. The soil water content increased when the OMW dose increased (data not 12 Viable yeasts and moulds micro? ora In comparison with the control soil, an o verall high CFU of fungi in the soil amended with untreated OMW was found (Table 4).In all dates of sampling, the fungal CFU number decreased when OMW increased but remained much higher than the control soil except for biologically treated OMW which had a lower CFU than the control. We noted that the pH of OMW leaving the anaerobic reactor ranged between 7. 6 and 8. This pH increased to 8. 7 during its storage at ambient temperature. After amendment with treated OMW, the pH of the soil increased to 9. 2. Such pH value is considered as detrimental for the fungal growth. C P1 P2 P3 P4 mg C-CO 2 g -1 (dry soil) 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Viable total nitri? rs Soils C, P1 and P2 showed broadly comparable nitri? er MPN numbers. However, a decrease in viable nitri? ers count was observed in P3. This decrease was more signi? cant in P4 (Table 5). Time (d) Figure 1. Cumulative respiratory activity as mg CO2 gA1 dry soil of different samples incubated over 28 days at 28 1C in the dark. Viable actinomycetes The actinomycetes CFU number increased when OMW doses increased up to the dose of 100 m3 haA1. At 200 m3 haA1 of untreated OMW, the CFU number remained higher than C and P1 (50 m3 haA1). However, it was lower than P2 (100 m3 haA1) (Table 6).ARTICLE IN PRESS 98 Table 3. Aerobic heterotrophic bacteria counts CFU ( A 104) gA1 in the different plots Feb C P1 P2 P3 P4 3472 8574. 95 12177. 11 6673. 9 9075. 3 May 6974. 05 7774. 52 8975. 32 7274. 23 10175. 93 Jun 24. 571. 44 45. 572. 67 57. 573. 38 5773. 35 7974. 64 Sep 1570. 88 48. 572. 85 65. 573. 85 43. 572. 55 6073. 52 Nov 21. 571. 26 8374. 88 16179. 46 9275. 4 15879. 29 A. Mekki et al. Data expressed as mean value (three replicates) and standard deviation for colony forming units per gram of dried soil. Table 4. Fungi counts in the different plots CFU ( A 104) gA1 Feb May 370. 5 11. 573. 64 571. 58 4. 671. 45 1. 8570. 58 Jun 370. 95 1775. 38 1574. 75 1173. 48 2. 8570. 9 Sep 1. 370. 41 15. 574. 9 1073. 17 4. 171. 2 9 1. 7470. 55 Nov 2. 770. 85 14. 774. 65 13. 574. 27 11. 273. 55 1. 3570. 42 C P1 P2 P3 P4 3. 571. 11 1073. 17 5. 571. 74 7. 572. 37 1. 8270. 57 Table 5. Nitri? ers counts MPN (x104) gA1 in the different plots Feb May 4. 770. 62 4. 570. 59 4. 270. 55 2. 870. 37 0. 4870. 063 Jun 3. 270. 42 3. 470. 45 2. 670. 34 1. 770. 22 0. 5170. 07 Sep 2. 870. 37 2. 470. 31 2. 470. 31 1. 170. 14 0. 0770. 009 Nov 3. 870. 5 3. 170. 41 2. 870. 37 1. 170. 14 0. 70. 11 C P1 P2 P3 P4 3. 670. 47 2. 670. 34 270. 26 1. 970. 25 0. 4670. 06 Table 6. Actinomycetes counts CFU ( A 104) gA1 in the different plots Feb May 2. 170. 28 14. 571. 93 18. 572. 46 1872. 39 17. 572. 33 Jun 270. 26 871. 06 15. 572. 06 1271. 59 15. 672. 07 Sep 270. 26 1071. 33 10. 571. 39 5. 570. 73 12. 2971. 63 Nov 3. 570. 46 12. 871. 7 17. 272. 29 14. 771. 95 15. 772. 09 C P1 P2 P3 P4 0. 670. 08 770. 93 1171. 46 570. 66 13. 2971. 77 Viable spore-forming bacteria and total coliforms The spore-forming bacteria increased with the increase of OMW doses (data not shown).For P4 soil, it shifted from the CFU gA1 number ranging from 0. 28 to 1. 12 A 104 in the control soil to CFU gA1 number ranging from 1. 1 to 2. 12 A 104 in P4 amended with 400 m3 haA1 of treated OMW. Total coliforms are well known as contaminant indicator bacteria in wastewater and soil. The number of the total coliforms was very low in the control soil. It increased when the treated or untreated OMW quantity increased (data not shown). Discussion This study attempted to demonstrate that soil amended with different concentrations of OMW showed modi? ation of its structure and its texture. The acidity of the untreated OMW was compensated by the soil carbonate alkalinity. The carbonates at the same time became bicarbonates, moved and accumulated in deeper horizons as was shown by Sierra et al. (2001). The increase of the salinity in the soil could result from the main ionic species, sodium chloride and sulphate, coming from the treated or untreated OMW. This is in line with previous ? nding ARTICLE IN PRESS Changes in microbial and soil properties following amendment (Paredes et al. , 1987; Sierra et al. 2001). Hence, in long-term applications, replacement of the soil calcium by the cations of Na, K and Mg could lead to the degradation of the soil structure and the formation of saline soils as was suggested earlier by Zenjari and Nejmeddine (2001). Biologically treated OMW had a pH48, and the alkalinity of this waste was not regulated (buffered) by the soil components. Soil porosity was reduced by the combined effect of the suspended solids and the COD formed by highly polymerised polyphenolic compounds such as humic acid-like substances (Cox et al. 1997). Consequently, soil plugged and became impermeable which led to a reduction of the soil aerobic community such as fungi and actinomycetes. This ? nding con? rms the reported correlation between the soil pH and the ( change in community composition (Frostegard et al. , 1993; Perkiomaki and Fritze, 2002). ? ? The increase of nutrient contents, Ctot, Ntot, P Mg , and K at all OMW treated plots, may have a bene? cial effect on the soil fertility. The OMW treated soil exhibited a higher respiration rate compared to the control soil.Nevertheless, when taking into account the added organic carbon, this activity was not in proportional ratio. Speci? c respiration expressed as C-CO2/Ctot decreased from 1. 7 in the control soil to 0. 5 in the soil amended with 100 m3 haA1 of untreated OMW. Yet, it slightly decreased to 1. 15 in the soil amended with 400 m3 haA1 of treated OMW. This can be explained by the fact that the phenolic compounds may inhibit the soil respiration, especially in the high OMW doses, and thus neutralize the favourable in? uence of its higher nutrient contents as was demonstrated by Sierra et al. 2001), Cox et al. (1997), Cabrera et al. (1996), and Paredes et al. (1987). In simple terms, the inhibition of soil respiration could be caused by the fact th at the big amount of carbon added to the soil was unavailable to the micro? ora under the effect of its strong adsorption or its reaction with the components of the soil. This disproportion could not be due to the added salt because despite the high content of salt in P4 (473 mg kgA1) compared to that in P3 (447. 5 mg kgA1), the former had a nearer speci? c respiration rate to the control plot C which contained only (69 mg kgA1).Addition of the untreated or the biologically treated OMW to the soil created some modi? cations in the average values for total number of microorganisms and their repartition. Results showed an initial increase in the numbers of CFU in most micro? ora groups after the OMW amendment, excepted for nitri? ers which decreased. In line with this ? nding, Paredes et al. (1987) reported also an increase in the total viable counts in the soil polluted with OMW. The overall low CFU number 99 observed in the P3 soil could be explained by the OMW dose becoming high an d toxic (Capasso et al. 1995). The chemolithotrophic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) are responsible for the ? rst ratelimiting step in nitri? cation in which ammonia (NH3) is transformed to nitrate (NOA) via nitrite 3 (NOA). The AOB play a critical role in the natural 2 nitrogen cycle (Oved et al. , 2001; Mendum and Hirsch, 2002). This micro? ora could be affected by a variety of chemical conditions including aromatic compounds and salts. Indeed, the number of nitri? ers shifted from the CFU gA1 number ranging from 2. 8 to 4. 7 A 104 in the control soil to CFU gA1 number ranging from 0. 46 to 0. A 104 in P4 amended with 400 m3 haA1 of treated OMW. Some authors reported that higher pH is not favourable for some phylogenetic groups of nitrifying bacteria (Kowalchuk et al. , 2000). Moreover, some residual polyphenolic compounds present in treated OMW may be toxic for this sensitive category of microorganisms (Peredes et al. , 1987). Actinomycetes and spore-forming bacteria play a sig ni? cant role in the organic matter cycle in nature, by virtue of their considerable powers and ability to break down complex organic molecules. Actinomycetes counts were strongly enhanced by treated and untreated OMW amendment.The introduction of organic pollutants, which can potentially act as toxic substances and nutrient sources, was shown to preferentially stimulate speci? c populations (Atlas et al. , 1991). The increase of the CFU count of spore-forming bacteria were in accordance with the earlier investigations of Paredes et al. (1987) who reported an increase in spore-forming bacteria counts but a decrease in the proportion of this population in the community from 10% to 12% in the control soil to 0. 02% in the polluted soil with OMW. Fungi populations are known by their considerable depolymerising enzymes and their resistance to recalcitrant substances.The OMW enhanced fungi, the most important organisms decomposing lignin and polyphenols (Scheu and Parkinson, 1994; Borken et al. , 2002). Consequently, this population was favoured in plots P1, P2 and P3 where pH and C/N ratio were also more favourable compared to the control. This observation con? rms previous ? ndings by Perkiomaki and Fritze (2002) and Joergensen et al. (1995). ? Conclusion Based on previous studies and our results, we suggest that the effect of the long-term use of OMW in the ferti-irrigation on the soil microbial commu- ARTICLE IN PRESS 00 nity, the soil fertility and the soil physico-chemical properties remain unclear. Yet, speci? c attention must be devoted to the irrigation potential of treated OMW with explicit reference to the major crops of agricultural interest. The following guidelines should be adhered to the OMW spreading on soil A. Mekki et al. Box, J. D. , 1983. Investigation of the Folin-Ciocalteau phenol reagent for the determination of polyphenolic substances in natural waters. Water Res. 17, 511–522. Cabrera, F. , Lopez, R. , Martinez-Bordiu, A. , Dupuy de Lome, E. , Murillo, J. M. , 1996.Land treatment of olive oil mill wastewater. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 38 (3-4), 215–225. Capasso, R. , Evidenti, A. , Schivo, L. , Orru, G. , Marcialis, M. A. , Cristinzio, G. , 1995. Antibacterial polyphenols from olive oil mill waste waters. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 79, 393–398. Casa, R. , D’Annibale, A. , Pieruccetti, F. , Stazi, S. R. , Giovannozzi Sermanni, G. G. , Lo Cascio, B. , 2003. Reduction of the phenolic components in olive-mill wastewater by enzymatic treatment and its impact on durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf. ) germinability. Chemosphere 50, 959–966. Cereti, C. F. , Rossini, F. Federici, F. , Quaratino, D. , Vassilev, N. , Fenice, M. , 2004. Reuse of microbially treated olive mill wastewater as fertiliser for wheat (Triticum durum Desf. ). Bioresource Technol. 91, 135–140. Cox, L. , Celis, R. , Hermosin, M. C. , Beker, A. , Cornejo, J. , 1997. Porosity and herbicide leaching in soils amended with oli ve-mill wastewater. Agri. Ecosyst. Environ. 65 (2), 151–161. D’Annibale, A. , Casa, R. , Pieruccetti, F. , Ricci, M. , Marabottini, R. , 2004. Lentinula edodes removes phenols from olive-mill wastewater: impact on durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf. ) germinability.Chemosphere 54, 887–894. Ehaliotis, C. , Papadopoulou, K. , Kotsou, M. , Mari, I. , Balis, C. , 1999. Adaptation and population dynamics of Azotobacter vinelandii during aerobic biological treatment of olive-mill wastewater. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 30, 301–311. Feria, A. L. , 2000. The generated situation by the O. M. W. in Andalusia. Actas/Proceedings-Workshop Improlive2000-Annex A1. ( ( (( Frostegard, A. , Baath, E. , Tunlid, A. , 1993. Shifts in the structure of soil microbial communities in limed forests as revealed by phospholipid fatty acid analysis. Soil Biol. Biochem. 25, 723–730. ISO 11348-2, 1998.Water quality – Determination of the inhibitory effect of water samples on the light emission of Vibrio ? scheri (Luminescent bacteria test) – Part 2: Method using liquid-dried bacteria Joergensen, R. G. , Anderson, T. H. , Wolters, V. , 1995. Carbon and nitrogen relationship in the microbial biomass of soils in beech Fagus sylvatica L. forest. Biol. Fert. Soils 19, 141–147. Kissi, M. , Mountadar, M. , Assobhei, O. , Gargiulo, E. , 2001. Roles of two white-rot basidiomycete fungi in decolorisation and detoxi? cation of olive mill waste water. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 57, 221–226. Knechtel, R. J. 1978. A more economical method for the determination of chemical oxygen demand. Water Pollut. Control (May/June), 25–29. Kotsou, M. , Mari, I. , Lasaridi, K. , Chatzipavlidis, I. , Balis, C. , Kyriacou, A. , 2004. The effect of olive oil mill    do not exceed 50 m3 haA1 yA1 of untreated OMW and to decrease the dose of treated OMW up to 100 m3 haA1 yA1 to avoid the increase of the soil salinity. integrate a polishing tertiary treatment of OMW for reducing the residual coloration and toxicity of the ef? uent. frequently till and avoid dry soil conditions to maintain a maximal activity of the soil micro? ra. Acknowledgments This work was supported by Inco-med project ‘‘Mediterranean usage of biotechnological treated ef? uent water’’ ICA3-CT-1999-00010. The authors would like to thank: ‘‘Institut de l’Olivier de Sfax’’ and Dr Bechir Ben Rouina for their permission to use the experimental plant of OMW amendment at Chaal farm. ? References Ammar, E. , Ben Rouina, B. , 1999. Potential horticultural utilization of olive oil processing waste water. Acta Horticult. 474 (2), 741–744. Angelakis, A. N. , Marecos Do Monte, M. H. F. , Bontoux, L. , Asano, T. , 1999.The status of wastewater reuse practice in the Mediterranean basin: need for guidelines. Water Res. 33 (10), 2201–2217. Atlas, R. M. , Horowitz, A. , Krichevsky, M. , Bej, A. K. , 1991. Respons e of microbial populations to environmental disturbances. Microb. Ecol. 22, 249–256. Ben Rouina, B. , 1994. Repercussions agronomiques de ? l’epandage des margines comme fertilisant. Interna? tional conference on Land and Water Resources Management in the Mediterranean Region II, 583–594. Ben Rouina, B. , Taamallah, H. , Ammar, E. , 1999. Vegetation water used as a fertilizer on young olive plants. Acta Horticult. 74 (1), 353–355. Ben Rouina, B. , Gargouri, K. , Taamallah, H. , 2001. L’utilisation des margines comme fertilisant en agriculture. Journees Mediterraneennes de l’oliviers. ? ? ? Nimes, France 6–7 & 8 Avril. Borken, W. , Muhs, A. , Beese, F. , 2002. Changes in microbial and soil properties following compost treatment of degraded temperate forest soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 34, 403–412. ARTICLE IN PRESS Changes in microbial and soil properties following amendment wastewater (OMW) on soil microbial communities and suppre ssiveness against Rhizoctonia solani. Appl. Soil Ecol. 26, 113–121. Kowalchuk, G. A. Stienstra, A. W. , Heilig, G. H. , Stephen, J. R. , Woldendorp, J. W. , 2000. Molecular analysis of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in soil of successional grasslands of the Drentsche A (The Netherlands). FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 31, 207–215. Law N1 574, 1996 (Legge 574, 11/11/1996). Norme sull’utilizzazione agronomica dei re? ui oleari. Gazzetta Uf? ciale N. 265 del 12 novembre, 1996. Lesage-Meessen, L. , Navarro, D. , Maunier, S. , Sigoillot, JC. , Lorquin, J. , Delattre, M. , Simon, J. -L. , Asther, M. , Labat, M. , 2001. Simple phenolic content in olive oil residues as a function of extraction systems.Food Chem. 75 (4), 501–507. Marques, I. P. , 2001. Anaerobic digestion treatment of olive mill wastewater for ef? uent re-use in irrigation. Desalination 137, 233–239. Mendum, T. A. , Hirsch, P. R. , 2002. Changes in the population structure of b-group autotrophic ammonia oxidizing bacteria in arable soils in response to agricultural practice. Soil Biol. Biochem. 34, 1479–1485. Moreno, E. , Perez, J. , Ramos-Cormenzana, A. , Martinez, J. , 1987. Antimicrobial effect of waste water from olive oil extraction plants selecting soil bacteria after incubation with diluted waste.Microbios 51, 169–174. Mulinacci, N. , Romani, A. , Galardi, C. , Pinelli, P. , Giaccherini, C. , Vincieri, F. F. , 2001. Polyphenolic content in olive oil waste waters and related olive samples. J. Agri. Food Chem. 49, 358–3514. ? Ohlinger, R. , 1995. Soil respiration by titration. In: ? Schinner, F. , Ohlinger, R. , Kandeler, E. , Margesin, R. (Eds. ), Methods in Soil Biology. Springer, Berlin, pp. 95–98. Oved, T. , Shaviv, A. , Goldrath, T. , Mandelbaun, R. T. , Minz, D. , 2001. In? uence of ef? uent irrigation on community composition and function of ammoniaoxidizing bacteria in soil.Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67, 3426–3433. Paredes, M. J. , Mo reno, E. , Ramos-Cormenzana, A. , Martinez, J. , 1987. Characteristics of soil after 101 pollution with waste waters from oil extraction plants. Chemosphere 16, 1557–1564. Paredes, C. , Roig, A. , Bernal, M. P. , Sanchez-Monedero, M. A. , Cegarra, J. , 2000. Evolution of organic matter and nitrogen during co-composting of olive mill wastewater with solid organic wastes. Biol. Fert. Soils 32 (3), 222–227. Perkiomaki, J. , Fritze, H. , 2002. Short and long-term ? ? effects of wood ash on boreal forest humus microbial community.Soil Biol. Biochem. 34, 1343–1353. Rinaldi, M. , Rana, G. , Introna, M. , 2003. Olive-mill wastewater spreading in southern Italy: effects on a durum wheat crop. Field Crops Res. 84, 319–326. Sayadi, S. , Ellouz, R. , 1992. Decolourization of olive mill waste-waters by the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium : involvement of the lignin-degrading system. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 37, 813–817. Sayadi, S. , Ellouz, R. , 1995. Roles of lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium in the decolorization of olive mill wastewaters.Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61, 1098–1103. Sayadi, S. , Allouche, N. , Jaoua, M. , Aloui, F. , 2000. Detrimental effects of high molecular-mass polyphenols on olive mill wastewater biotreatment. Process Biochem. 35, 725–735. Scheu, S. , Parkinson, D. , 1994. Changes in the bacterial and fungal biomass C, bacterial and fungal biovolume and ergosterol contents after drying, remoistening and incubation of different layers of cool temperature forest soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 26, 1515–1525. Sierra, J. , Marti, E. , Montserrat, G. , Cruanas, R. , Garau, M. A. , 2001.Characterization and evolution of a soil affected by olive oil mill wastewater disposal. Sci. Total Environ. 279, 207–214. Trolldenier, G. , 1995. Nitri? ers by MPN method. In: ? Schinner, F. , Ohlinger, R. , Kandeler, E. , Margesin, R. (Eds. ), Methods in Soil Biology. Springer, Berlin, pp. 32–36. ? ? Yesilada, E. , Ozmen, M. , Yeslada, O. , 1999. Studies on the toxic and genotoxic effect of olive oil mill wastewater. Fresenius Envir. Bull. 8, 732–739. Zenjari, A. , Nejmeddine, A. , 2001. Impact of spreading olive mill wastewater on soil characteristics: laboratory experiments. Agronomie 21, 749–755. My Aim in Life There are two things to aim at in life: first, to get what you want, and after that to enjoy it. Only the wisest of mankind achieve the second. Logan P. Smith People have set their own aim depending upon their abilities. Some people are doctors, engineers, Charter Accountants, pilots, teachers and many more. Our life is too short so we have to strive to attain our aim with all our hard work. The main objective for achieving the aim is to get material pleasures, mental happiness as well as satisfaction. Once a person chives his aim he can live a prosperous life.The mere act of aiming at something big, makes you big. Charcoal Nehru My aim in life is neither to collect money nor for fame. It is my desire to become a well-qualified doctor. I do not just wish to be an ordinary doctor. The world remembers with thankfulness the name of the man who gave to the world vaccination. The world will remember forever the man who gave us penicillin. As a doctor I want to serve the humanity. Don't ai m for success if you want it; just do what you love and believe in, and it will come naturally.David Frost have an ambition to do something in this world so, great as the doctors and the courageous founders did in the past. I would like to give the world some new drugs and injections that will cure some of the diseases that people are still suffering from. An aim in life is the only fortune worth finding. Robert Louis Stevenson know, my profession is very dignified and it will help me to get peace and satisfaction in life. It provides us best chances of service. Sympathy to human being is the sympathy to one own self. Quotations About this essay. Future favors the bold.An early death is better than an aimless life. A noble aim is simply a noble deed. My goal in life is to survive. Everything else is just a bonus. The greater danger for most of us lies not in setting our aim too high and falling short; but in setting our aim too low, and achieving our mark. Michelangelo The aim of ar t is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance. Aristotle. Aim above morality. Be not simply good, be good for something.

Hitory Elective Notes: Chapter 6

Tanjong Katong Secondary School Secondary FourHistory Elective Chapter 6: War in EuropeHow was Germany responsible for the outbreak of WWII? Hitler’s foreign policy aims:   Hitler wanted to make Germany ____ again by having a _________ and regaining the ____ lost by TOV. †¢ Wanted all German- speaking people to live together in one country called _____________. †¢ Felt that Germany’s growing population needed more room to live and grow food. He called this ___________ (living space). †¢ He could get his lebensraum by __________ lands east of Germany. Hated the _____________ ideology and wanted to conquer the Soviet Union to destroy _____________. †¢ SU had vast lands and Hitler believed that the Germans could use the lands for _________. Steps taken by Hitler: †¢ 1933: Hitler pulled Germany out of the ________________ organised by the League of Nations, announcing that she will disarm only if other nations did so as well. †¢ 1933: Pulled Germany out of ____________________. †¢ 1934: Increased the size of his ____ from 100, 000 to 300,000 men. (conscription) †¢ 1935: Increased the size of the army to 550,000 men & reintroduced ___________________________ for all male citizens. Re-militarisation of ______________: †¢ TOV stated that no ________________ were to be in Rhineland after Allied troops had withdrawn. †¢ 1936: Ordered troops into ______________________________. †¢ Britain and France took no action against Germany. †¢ British claim: Germany was only ‘marching into its own backyard’. †¢ France unwilling to take action without Britain’s support. Anschluss with _______ †¢ TOV stated that there should be no ____________ (anschluss) between Germany and Austria. †¢ Hitler tried to take control of Austria. †¢ Hitler threatened Austrian Chancellor Schushnigg that he would send in his army. March 1938: German troops marched into Austria, which then became a _________ of Germany. How was the League of Nations responsible for the outbreak of WWII? Weaknesses of LON: †¢ An exclusive club for __________ of WWI. †¢ Germany was not treated well. †¢ By not treating all its members with _______________, it failed to win the _________ from members. †¢ Richest and most powerful member of the world – ______- not in the League => weak. †¢ Britain and France were the unofficial leaders of LON but only took action when it served their own ________. Poor leadership -> members ______________ for the League. Members of the League were supposed to ________ each other through the use of __________________, but this was never applied. †¢ When League did not punish Japan when it attacked Manchuria, Italy and Germany went ahead with their attacks ________ that the League could not stop them. †¢ Did not have an ____ of its own, thus not in a position to _______ a country from ________. Failure to curb Italian aggression in ___________, 1936: †¢ Action: Benito _________ (Fascist leader of Italy) wanted to increase Italian influence in Abyssinia (today’s Ethiopia) and made plans to ______ it. Response: LON only implemented a _________ economic embargo against Italy. But this too was not fully implemented due to fear that any embargo would affect members’ own economies. †¢ LON was not _____ enough to protect countries from attacks by its members. Failure to encourage ___________  : †¢ France: Did not feel ____ from Germany and refused to disarm. †¢ Hitler: If other countries did not disarm, then Germany had the right to build up its armed forces and did so at a ____ pace. †¢ Other European countries: Began to rearm _______ Germany. Failure to preserve ______ of the League: †¢ Britain: Fear that Germany would have a navy ______ than hers. In 1935, signed the ______________________ which allowed Germany to increase the size of its navy to 35% of the British navy, including submarines, which were banned in TOV. †¢ Britain, the unofficial leader of the LON, broke the military terms of the TOV and placed her own interests first. †¢ Other members followed Britain’s example, instead of acting together to _________ the ___ of a ________ strong Germany. Failure to preserve _______________  : Due to ________________, many countries priced their goods more _______ than foreign goods, in an attempt to sell more of their goods overseas. †¢ They also tried to _______ foreign goods from being sold in other countries by raising ______ on the foreign goods. †¢ 1933: LON held international conference to stop countries from increasing tariffs, but none of the countries wanted to _________. †¢ Each country believed that it had to protect its own interest first –> ______ war between countries. How were Britain and France responsible for the outbreak of WWII? Appeasement: __________ war at all costs by _________ to whatever the enemy country asks for. Reasons for appeasement: †¢ WWI, with its great __________ made war an __________ choice. †¢ Economies _______________ by WWI and GD. Needed to _________ economies and could not _____ to fight another war. †¢ Br and Fr needed more ____ to _________ their army. †¢ Many British and French ______ were fighting for their independence. Br and France could not afford to quell these rebellions and fight a major war in Europe at the same time. †¢ Felt that they could not win a war against Germany without the help of USA. USA was following a strict policy of ________ and would not get involved in any war in Europe. †¢ Felt that _________ was a bigger threat than _______. A strong Germany would prevent the spread of Communism from Soviet Russia to other parts of Europe. Example of appeasement: ______________ Crisis, 1938 †¢ Hitler wanted to take over Sudentenland (part of ______________) after Austria. †¢ Despised the Czech people as they were _____ – an ‘_______________’. †¢ Prosperous country ____ in resources. †¢ Over 3 million _________ living in Sudentenland – wanted to make it part of his Greater Germany. Sudetenland important for Czechoslovakia because of its _________ and heavy __________ located there. †¢ Encouraged members of the Sudetenland _____________ to make as much trouble for the Czech government so that it would give up Sudetenland. †¢ Czechoslovakia looked to Britain and France to stop Hitler, since Sudetenland was not a German land which had been taken away by TOV. It had never ___________ to Germany. †¢ Britain and France feared that Europe will be _______ into a war if the crisis was not solved. †¢ Br PM Neville _____________ went to Germany three times in Sept 1938 in and effort to prevent war. 3rd meeting in _______ – Representatives from Br, Fr, Italy, Germany attended, but not ______ or ______. †¢ Munich Agreement: Germany would not be stopped from taking Sudetenland. In exchange, Hitler promised not to take any more land in Europe. †¢ Chamberlain happy that war had been __________. Impact of appeasement: †¢ Policy of appeasement had merely _____________ greater ___________ from Germany, since Hitler was _________ that Britain and France would give in to all his demands/actions, as they did not want to get involved in a bigger war. End of appeasement: March 1939: Hitler invaded ______________. †¢ Invasion convinced Br and Fr that Hitler could no longer be _______ and ended their policy of appeasement. How was Soviet Union responsible for the outbreak of WWII? Stalin’s concerns: †¢ Worried about the rise of Hitler, who openly stated that he ______ Communism. †¢ ________ was Hitler’s next target and it was _________ on USSR’s western front. †¢ 1934: Stalin joined _______________ to gain _____________ for USSR from Germany. †¢ However, he was concerned that the LON will not protect USSR since it took no ______ against Germany when it broke terms of TOV. Believed that Br and Fr wanted to see Communism _____________ too. Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939: †¢ Pact of _________ between Germany and USSR. †¢ Hitler’s reason: wanted Poland but worried about fighting a war on two ______ – Br and Fr on western border and USSR on eastern border. †¢ Stalin’s reason: To avoid war with Germany. †¢ Terms: USSR would remain _______ if Germany attacked Poland. In exchange, they would ________ Poland between them. †¢ Reaction: Came as a ______ to the world as Hitler hated Communism and USSR. Significance: Gave Hitler _________ to invade Poland, as he would not have to face a two-front war. †¢ On 1 Sept 1939, he ________ Poland, confident that his army would be able to handle a war with Br and Fr, if they responded at all. †¢ The following day, Br and Fr _________ a _________ from Poland or face a war. †¢ Hitler _________. Br and Fr _______________ on Germany. Questions to ponder: Who/what was responsible for the outbreak of WWII and to what extent? What were the long term causes of the war? What were the short term causes of the war? What were the factors which triggered the war?

Analyzing an image Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Analyzing an image - Essay Example An ad persuades or turns off potentials buyers. Toyota Camry commercial entails strong, credible, and attractive message for the probable target market. Largely, the message crafted in the ad is effective. The ad involves different photos, clear messages, events, and geographic features that appeal to the relevant customer senses. For example, the advert encompasses the entreaties to pathos, logos, and ethos. The selection of language and phrases in the ad significantly influences the viewer’s emotional appeal, emotional response, thus enhancing the efficiency. Particularly, broken bridge and phrase, which highlights that a single bold choice opens other opportunities for advancement, is effective, context specific, and provides motivation for the buyers and users of the car. The ad involves the use of clear structures, colorful pictures, and information that offers consistency for the audience. Furthermore, the interplay of the highlighted events such as dog rescue, bridge, and escape with evidence offer distinctive claim and enable the buyers to make logic reasons. The broken bridge, relaxed female and the rescued dog supports the precision of Toyota products in all terrains across the world. By observing and reading, the bold letters emphasize importance of the vehicle. Hence, the ad provides a clear message of dependability, sincerity and durability of Toyota Camry spells out. Besides, ethos emanates the posters appealing style of dispatch and tone. Thus, the ad provides viewers with opportunity to visualize the actual car and make comparisons of the past, present and future replicas. The approach suggestively guides sound decision-making process when purchasing the car. In this context, the picture of the girl shows audacity in pursuit of a beneficial outcome. Hence, the picture translates that Toyota Camry improves livelihood and performs better than competing car

Business Analysis Of Deutsche Bank Research Paper

Business Analysis Of Deutsche Bank - Research Paper Example On the other hand, Wall Street's S&P 500 index rose only 3%. (Deutsche Bank Group Annual Report, 2005). The value of the bank therefore rose by 10 billion to 45.42 billion. (Deutsche Bank Group Annual Report, 2005) Increase firm value and increase dividends is reflecting good performance during the year 2004. The increase in stock price might also be as a result of the announcement of the higher dividends, thus signalling some positive information about the profitability of the company to potential investors who increase their bids for the stock thereby causing the rise in its price. Basic Earnings per share, the portion of the bank's profit allocated to each outstanding shareholder and which serves as an indicator of profitability also witnessed an increase from 5.02 in 2004 to 7.62 in 2005. This represents a percentage increase of The diluted earnings per share represents the earnings per share, including common stock, preference shares, unexercised stock options, unexercised warrants, and some convertible bonds. The figures for Deutsche Bank during the periods 2004 and 2005 were 4.53 and 6.95 respectively. This translates to a percentage increase from 2004 to 2005 of: The average equity shares outstanding in 2004 and 2005 were 493 and 463 respectively. This reflects a decrease in the number of shares by 493million-463million = 30million. This decrease might be attributed to redemption of shares through share repurchases. For example the company completed its share buy bank program in 2005. (Deutsche Bank Annual Report, 2005). The average shares outstanding for diluted shares, that is, taking into account preference shares and the number of shares that will be outstanding after all stock options, warrants, and convertible bonds would have been exercised in addition to ordinary shares amounted to 532million and 509million respectively. This also represents a drop in the number by 532million - 509 million = 23million. This drop might also be attributed to a redemption of some of the convertible issues such as bonds and warrants and as a result of out-of-the-money stock options at the maturity date. Deutsche Bank had a post-tax return on average shareholders equity of 9.1% and 12.5% in 2004 and 2005 respectively. This represents an increase by 3.4 which represents a percentage increase of: More revenue was generated to for shareholders, that is after paying off preference shareholders, bond holders and warrant holders in 2005 than in 2004. the company had a post-tax return on active equity of 14.8% and 21.7% for 2004 and 2005 respectively this also represents a very high percentage increase and also goes a long way to conclude that more shareholder value was created in 2005 as opposed to 2006 as can be

Incentive of the employer and employee Research Paper

Incentive of the employer and employee - Research Paper Example Through incentives employees remain motivated to perform and it gives them the opportunity to get a little extra something other than their annual pay (Fisher, 26). Employer is a person or institution that hires workers or employees, whereas an employee is a person in service of an employer under contract of hire. The employer has the power to direct the employee in the manner the work has to be done (Fisher, 87). Employee incentive program has become a significant element in an HR toolbox. Employee performance has become a very important part for the success of the company due to the competitive pressure and increase in demands. To develop, launch and implement an effective employee incentive program it is important to identify the goal that leads the organization forward towards success. The incentive program should be such that it stimulates employees to achieve company goals. It should also have the potential to grow and increase the job satisfaction and employee morale. The program recompenses and emphasizes actions that have an encouraging influence on the company. Following are some key points to develop an effective employee incentive program (Rosenbloom, 357). Types of performance and behaviors that are to be encouraged need to be clear. Regular and ongoing reminders have to be provided in order to keep the enthusiasm high. The program should be continuously evaluated and modified so as to ensure that it continues to be effective (Rosenbloom, 398). First step is to create a brief survey and distribute to employees asking for incentive ideas. Evaluate the responses in terms of tangible or intangible rewards. The survey should ask questions about recognition and rewards without differentiating between monetary and non-monetary rewards. Employees are to be provided with clear choices in the survey in order to get clear answers. Questions should be asked to check the employee preference of a cash reward over a personalized inscription

Outline of Intercultural communication term paper

Outline of Intercultural communication - Term Paper Example However, he is spared and set free. He struggles to fit into the Japanese culture throughout the movie. The need to change culture and hostilities from the Samurai comprises a big part of hardships that Algren faces. Culture intolerance is depicted through the way the Samurai treated Algren when he was captured. They, pioneered by Uijo, label him as barbaric due to his exclusive culture. The Samurai cannot tolerate an infiltration of ‘strange culture’ amongst them. Most Samurai warriors prefer killing the prisoner as dictated by their culture. The Samurai culture does not allow a defeated soldier to live and sees the actions of Algren as unacceptable. There is a lot of culture backed animosity in the film. Uijo is portrayed as the most reserved culturist in the film. He tortures Algren both physically and psychologically to show him that he does not belong. In the infamous episode where Uijo tortures a helpless Algren, the animosity and distrust between cultures is depicted. The film depicts intracultural conflicts and conflicts between cultures. The culture of war and peace is more pronounced. For example, a samurai worrier is supposed to cut off the head of a prisoner of war but Katsumoto chooses to keep Algren alive. Intercultural conflicts are observed in the differences between American and Japanese cultures regarding rule of war, and family. Custom refers to the tradition people apply in their life. The traditions are bound by culture of the society. The Last Samurai is a clear depiction of varying traditions which soon become blended into a hybrid version. This is because the traditions and Algren are used alongside those of the Japanese. Cultural change is seen throughout the film. The changes are initiated by the samurai leader who prefers to keep Algren rather than kill him. According to the Samurai, defeat is not an option and thus Samurai worriers concede by ending their lives, however, this changes when

Confrontation between the Germanic people and Romans Essay

Confrontation between the Germanic people and Romans - Essay Example To Germanic tribe, religion played an important role in the creation of alliances between tribes with other groups, and still it was the basis of the invasions. Following this, this paper seeks to evaluate how it would pay greater attention to the religious conflicts between the Germanic people and Romans. The confrontation between the Germanic people and Romans, and the religion clash led to the downfall of the Roman Empire and the commencement of German culture throughout Europe. In this case, it is hard to gain precise information about these tribes with their activities because they lacked written language thus; there was no account of events and people. With this in mind, Historians should regard the need of second-hand accounts of the Romans, who narrate stories through their own perceptive. Throughout history, Gordeeva (1) outline how Germans have retained the fundamental aspects of their religious culture and how they have absorbed essential elements of their race. Religion i s a crucial aspect of the German culture, which makes the country unique with its unique identity. With this in mind, religion is treated with reverence and openness. The German laws offer people freedom to choose their religion and faith. Christianity has been the prominent religion with over 55 million followers. However, half of the population are Protestants and Roman Catholic. For many years, religion has been paramount and amazingly, the liberal viewpoint of the nation has been commendable. Roman Catholicism is among the two important religions in German, and its origin can be traced in the 8th Century of Saint Boniface’s missionary work. After one century, Roman Catholicism made a difference in making more converts and spreading the gospel effectively. In 1517, Martin Luther transformed the world and European history when he formed the second faith in German â€Å"Protestantism†. This brought a lot of differences in beliefs and culture between the Protestants an d Romans, and these differences played a significant role in the World war. The legacy of the protestant reformation and conflict brought by religious differences brought â€Å"Confrontation between the Germanic people and Romans†. Still, the Germanic migration brought struggles and strife between Roman and Germanic. There were a lot of wars between the two tribes brought by differences in religion. Still, there was a concern in the year 496 of the baptizing of king of the Franks with his loyal followers. As a result, this conversion brought a great significance of Clovis, which expanded into southern and central parts of France. Mostly, the perception of migrations centres on confrontation between the Germanic people and Romans. Prior to the World War 11, a third of the German population was Roman Catholic and two-thirds the Protestants. In this case, Bavaria was among the Roman Catholic follower. Roman Catholics were populated in Saarland, Baden-Wurttemberg, and Rhineland. However, Protestants were the majority in the Northeast and North of Germany. During Hitler leadership, established churches could not air their challenges to the State. Hitler only respected the organization and power of the â€Å"Roman Catholic Church†. In late 1933, the opposition group under the ruling of Lutheran Martin and Dietrich Bonheoffer established a confessing church. Following this, Lutheran Church members were arrested and some executed such as Bonheoffer during the end of the World War 11. As a

Working internationally Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Working internationally - Essay Example Price fluctuations are usually reduced through purchases of both long term and short term positions within the same securities. Hedge funds differ form other types of careers on the financial sector because of the nature of business. Hedge funds are not as regulated as other investment or financial institutions. Consequently, most of them may not be as well structured as the other conventional investment institutions. Hedge funds are usually centred on the hedge fund manager. This is the person who will conduct most transactions; he may be in charge of marketing, human resource, operations and many others. (Alec, 2007) However, it should be noted that in larger hedge funds, there is more division of labour as there may be operational managers and others. Even the manners of conducting business within these hedge funds will depend upon the type of organisation chosen. Therefore employees are expected to be versatile. In order to make it in the fast paced yet exiting career in hedge funding investment, one needs to be well versed with the tricks of the trade. This can only be attained through work experience. Currently, the work experience was obtained through internship at a small hedge fund company at the heart of the City. The work experience was an enriching achievement. This is because there was an opportunity to learn first hand how hedge fund companies are run. The atmosphere was extremely busy since members of staff were not too many yet the tasks at hand were quite enormous. The environment was quite stimulating because there were instances when efforts would be rewarded there and then. However, there were also some times when it would be bitterly disappointing. It was also established that the hedge fund sector requires a lot of networking. Most of the prominent personalities in the firm were deeply engaged in the hedge fund business. They had started out as graduates but made efforts to link themselves to all the right groups

A Memorable Football Match Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Memorable Football Match - Essay Example The researcher started playing the game at the age of 7 where he uses to play with the friends who have similar kind of enthusiasm towards the sport. They continued to play in the same manner for the next three years forming a team where all the players were from their own locality and almost similar to one another in terms of age. They used to play matches with teams of other locality. Those days has kept the author engaged in watching as well as playing the football game. His concentration towards studies trembled up to an extent which showed in his academic performances. However, the researcher must mention that he cared a little about these aspects during those days. His interest and enthusiasm for the game augmented rapidly in course of time and it continued likewise till he was 12 years of age. It was the last week of the summer of 2005 and the weather was best suited for playing the game of football. Every year during this time, the local authority organizes a soccer competiti on inviting teams from various regions of the district. It was one of the most prestigious and followed football competitions in the district. Their team was aspiring to participate in this event since a longer tenure but was unable to do the same because of their age which does not match up the eligibility criteria which allows the age group of 12-15 years. That year their team was about to participate in the competition owing to the aspect that there were no age barrier for us anymore. The researcher’s first match was scheduled on the 3rd day of the competition with one of the toughest and most competitive teams of the tournament. His teammates were worried about this fact but the author had some feeling altogether. The researcher was not aware of what his teammates were felling about the match but for him, it was probably an all-new experience awaiting. There are some reasons owing to which the author depicted this match as an experience. This was the first he was about to play a football match in front of thousands of spectators coming from various regions of the district. This was also about to be the first moment when his game would be aired on the local television network. The D-day arrived and expectedly, thousands of spectators gathered to witness the match and the local television network was also about to telecast the same. A feeling of nervousness and anxiety was running through the author’s head. As they walked into the stadium, the roar of around 4 thousand spectators’ altogether greeted them. Although, the capacity of the stadium was quite less as compared to a usual national and international football grounds, for the researcher, the cheer of this handful number of spectators gave the feeling of playing in front of millions. The match started with a kick on the ball from the opposition team. With the passage of time, the enthusiasm of the spectators augmented considerably. The researcher must mention that his performance th roughout the match was mediocre and was unable to put the ball into the net on a single occasion. The match ended as a draw, where both the teams were scoring one goal each.

Quantitative Methods for Business Report Outline

Quantitative Methods for Business Report - Outline Example Therefore, it is the quality of the employees, rather than their quantity, that affects how the business will perform. To establish which factors is likely to affect business profitability more, between the number of employees and the employees’ turnover in a business, a sample of 30 banking institutions was studied. The reason for selecting banking institutions is the fact that; banking institutions mainly deal with offering financial services to the customers (Gitman & McDaniel, 2009 p188). Additionally, banking institutions operates under a competitive industry, where poaching of employees by other banks, microfinance institutions or insurance companies is highly experienced. The banking sector also entails the offer of services, where the employees of the banks interact directly with the customers, a necessary factor in this study, since the level of customer satisfaction influences their confidence and loyalty to the business, and the consequent performance and profitability of the business (Aamodt, 2010 p395). Thus, the selection of banking institutions as the samples for this study pro vided the most plausible means of assessing how the employee turnover and the number of employees affect the profitability of the businesses. The analysis was undertaken by approaching the 30 different banking institutions, and requesting them for the data regarding the number of employees within the period 2005 to 2010. Additionally, the information regarding the number of employees who have been recruited by the institutions and the ones who have left the institutions, for other reasons other than retirement was collected. The information regarding the profitability of the businesses during this period was also collected. The study also entailed the collection of information regarding the training programs of the banking institutions, and the amount of resources they have been committing towards the training of any single employee. This

Algebraic expressions.Elementary and Intermediate Algebra Essay Example for Free

Algebraic expressions.Elementary and Intermediate Algebra Essay Algebraic expressions Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the introduction to Algebra, the first assignment for the first week will involve using real numbers in place of integers to simplify expressions. Everyone needs to take his/her time to grasp the rules and the steps which are followed in algebra as this will form a concrete base for the algebraic expression understanding. One needs to understand the mathematical fundamental elements so as not to incur problems in solving any algebraic problems. For instance, one needs to be clear with the properties of integers as these are the same properties which apply to the real numbers. The first step in dealing with equations is removing the parenthesis. If an equation requires you remove the parenthesis from the equation, distribution becomes a necessity. Like terms should be grouped together when multiplying the integers that are inside the parenthesis to perform any indicated operation (Dugopolski, M.(2012  ), 2, p.67).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The following is how I attempted to handle the assigned equations in the simplest form. In the left side of the page, I have put the mathematic equation, and in the right side there is my explanation of the steps I followed. 2a(a-5)+4(a-5) Equation =2a ²-10a+4a-20 remove the distributive properties from the parenthesis = 2a ² -6a-20 then we get the coefficient. =a ²- 3a 10 then we simplify the expression. In the next equation, 2.  2w-3+3(w-4)-5(w-6) the equation =2w-3+3w-12-5w+30   remove the distributive properties from the parenthesis =2w+3w-5w-3-12+30 then we get the coefficients and. =15 combine them In the third equation, 3. 0.05(0.3m+35n)-0.8(-0.09n-22m) the equation =0.015m+1.75n+0.072n+17.6m remove the distributive property from the parenthesis =0.015m+17.6m+1.75n+0.072n simplify by putting the like terms together and =17.615m+1.822n combine them References Dugopolski, M. (2012  ). Elementary and Intermediate Algebra. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Source document

The Hurt Locker Analysis Film Studies Essay

The Hurt Locker Analysis Film Studies Essay The Hurt Locker is a movie written by Mark Boal and directed by Kathryn Bigelow. It displays combat at its best in Iraq. The movie reflects on the celebrated life of a soldier and is entitled, war is a drug. The soldier vividly displays war as a drug that needs to be taken by all soldiers at all times of their lives for their survival. The writer depicts this through the display of the paralyzing life of a soldier in war. She emphasizes this through the main character whose daring nature puts him at loggerheads with his colleagues (Eldridge and Sanborn) (Olsen, 2008).This paper analyze critically, the Hurt Locker with a specific focus on conflicts, symbols as well as irony presented in the movie. Various conflicts are displayed in the movie, first, when James is hired to replace the previous team leader, Sergeant Thompson. With his experience in war, he conflicts with the rest of the soldiers owing to his aggressive nature and failure to follow protocol. The soldiers find James ways reckless and disturbing but his spontaneity is seen to assist them soldier on to the end. Further James conflicts with Sanborn while trying to pursue the suspects of a petrol oil tanker that had exploded. Sanborn argues that the work should be left to the three platoons in the area. James however wins him over (Ressner, 2008). Again, an external conflict is encountered while driving back to their camp, the three soldiers, Eldridge, Sanborn and James come into conflict with five mercenaries who engage them in battle but they manage to kill after a long struggle. In another scene, the James teams set out to plant an explosion in a desert and they leave. James returns to the site, where the explosive s are already rigged to detonate, to pick up his gloves, which he had forgotten. Sanborn loudly ponders about killing James by deliberately making the explosion explode on him. Eldridge is does not concur with him and is hence unhappy. The theme most featured in the video is that of soldiers dying for their country in patriotism. This is cleared portrayed in the sacrifices made by leaving their families to fight for their countries. At the end of the movie features James with his little son, he recalls the war and contemplates going back to the battlefield. Later he goes back to the battlefield portraying his addiction to war. Other subthemes include violence and war seen in the encounters of the soldiers dismantling bombs and fighting enemies who attack. The filming of the movie in Iraq explains this theme clearly since it is known as a war country (Nott, 2009). The director of the movie integrates principally very shaky and obscure scenes in the movie to portray the uncertainty that hits the soldiers in addition to the danger they face. Iraqis are seen peeping through cracks of buildings, fences and on balconies; this isolates the American soldiers (James, Sanborn, and Eldridge) as being in a suspicious territory. This indirectly portrays these people watching from afar, as people who could set up an explosion on the US soldiers. The stereotype surrounding the towel headed terrorist is personified within the hurt locker. It is implied in the sniper scene at the UN building and depicted by the group of men and women pushing the cart after learning of the body bomb. This denotes the Iraqi as untrustworthy (Tobias, 2009). The American soldiers tend to sympathize with a 12 year old boy, Beckham who displays a flawed character resembling an American teenager. Despite his character, James sympathizes with him and attempts to befriend him. Beckam symbolizes the American culture. Later on Beckams body is found with a bomb implanted in his chest. This makes James go in pursuit of the assailants who did the deadly act. The scenes of a body bomb discovered put the Iraqi citizens in bad light through stereotypes (Olsen, 2008). This symbolizes the American foreign policy. As James dislodges the bomb in the boys chest this symbolizes Americas efforts to liberate and bring democracy in Iraq, the body bomb being a product of the Iraqis. This also serves the purpose of cleansing the view of American soldiers universally as connecting with the locals to help them. This is depicted clearly by James mistaken identity of the body bomb. The setting greatly influences the featured characters. Arid desert scenes and streets with small tunnel like alleyways with debris allover signify the battlefield. Chaos and disorganization is portrayed by explosions at every instance. The only orderly and peaceful place is the US camp victory .These two conflicting images reflect the US foreign policy of bringing forth order and liberation to the Iraq citizen. Dialogue in the movie depicts stereotypes of various kinds. The US soldiers are seen in engaging in slang talk throughout the radio communications. This portrays the superiority complex of the US soldiers with regard to the foreign policy. This is also a depiction of how the US soldiers carry themselves in the battlefield (Ressner, 2008). Bigelow, constructs the movie without favoring any side, this puts him in a state of political balance rather than politically driven level. This he does by balancing the preconception of the audience about Iraq and loose truth about the same. The use of camera angles and dialogue instigates suspense and represent the stress intensity by highlighting the suspicions and insecurity of the setting. The scene before the colonel Cambridges death where he speaks in a demining tone attempting to dismiss the group of Iraq citizens who leave an explosive device close to him. This scene degrades the intelligence of the Iraqi citizens and instigates in the viewers a terrorist image due to the bombing that results. The figure colonel Cambridges reflects the inability of the US forces to adequately understand the people of Iraq. Cambridge is the most intelligent man within the soldiers and the only US casualty expressing the notion that intelligence does not equal to superiority in a dangerous en vironment (Nott, 2009). Inhumanity of the war is depicted when Reed, a colonel congratulates James for his brevity. This shows the Americas brutality when he further claims that James will not make it after which follows gunshots. This clearly portrays a balance in the political sides of Iraq and America as this shows the brutality of the American side. The presence of British mercenary dressed in hajji clothing depicts the inability of the Americans to know the difference. This shows the Americans as being human in a variety of ways (Tobias, 2009). Irony is clearly displayed by the title of the movie whereby the war is depicted as a drug. This is an ironical of the normal situation where human beings like peaceful engagement with each other. At the end of the movie, James is seen as an addict of war. He misses life in war and finally goes back to war, depicting an irony (Olsen, 2008). In sum, the hurt locker depicts the title war is a drug. This is shown in its main character, James whose addiction to war leads him to going back to war each time. This title is ironical since in normal situations, a human being may never crave for war. Various conflicts are displayed especially concerning James spontaneous behavior. At some instance, Sanborn reflects accidentally killing James. The colleagues also fall into conflict with a group of Arab mercenaries but they emerge victorious after numerous confrontation. The movie is symbolic in most instances, first the setting of the movie is in a desert with scenes depicting disorganization and chaos with a touch of Iraq. The only orderly and organized place is the victory camp of the US reflecting the efforts of the united states of liberating Iraq. Their friendliness to the 12-year-old boy shows the effort of the Americans at interacting with the Iraq to solve their indifference. American soldiers are depicted as having a supe riority complex in their dialogue with each other and in their belittling of the hajji soldiers. There is however a balance of political sides where the director portrays the Americans brutality in addition to showing the ruthlessness of the Iraq people. This way he wins in his depiction of lack of favoritism. In totality this movie portrays the title war is a drug.

Social Work Planning for Child Abandonement

Social Work Planning for Child Abandonement Since the earliest times of humanity, the social issue of childhood abandonment, and further the social planning for this problem, has been a reality. The issue, although a fairly common occurrence in society, is a rather understudied trend. Additionally, children are a particularly vulnerable population who are often thought to be the property of their parents. This fact alone makes children of less importance in research as they are thought to be under the care and guidance of their mother and/or father. On the contrary, however, most prevalently documented in existing reports on children is the variations of abuse and neglect, even though physical abandonment is just as relevant, if not more important. For example, Who speaks for Joshua? was a question raised by Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun in his discussion of the plight of three-year-old Joshua DeShaney who had been beaten by his parents until permanently disabled (Ashby, 1997). What people should be asking, but arent, i s who speaks for the millions of orphans? Adults can speak for them, of course, but with varying interests and agendas and usually not within the interest of the actual children (Ashby, 1997). There is a much stronger focus on the physical, sexual, and emotional abuse of children than on their complete desertion. This problem is of particular importance because the number of children looking for families in orphanages, foster care, and on the streets is astonishing. It is also concerning that the children who are orphans have no control over their current situation, destiny, or fate. Sociological research has shown family to be one of the most important foundations of life; it is the first social group an individual is a part of, and the impact of the family system on an individual is crucial and wide-ranging. Social workers should better acquaint themselves with the issue of social planning for abandoned children to improve the current and future practice and policy in this area. Introduction Currently there is no one central source which monitors the number of children abandoned across America (Edwards, 2000). While the parental reasons for abandonment are wide ranging, the act of desertion most often results in the child becoming a responsibility of the state, in a child welfare agency, or can at times end in death. Childhood abandonment does not have one clear all inclusive definition. The act of abandonment itself can be as harsh as leaving a child on a door step, in front of a hospital or church, or simply leaving them on the streets to fend for themselves. It could also be seen as parents neglect of a child over an extended period of time (Mason, 2009, p. 29). While the issue of childhood abandonment remains a vast problem in itself, the social planning for abandoned children is also of immense concern. Children can no longer fend for themselves on the streets; orphanages and foundling homes are not sufficient for the individuals attention and stimulation either (Bu rstein, 1981). Thus, the move from the streets to foster care, relative guardianships, or adoptive families is necessary, yet remains extremely difficult for a variety of reasons to this day. There are many problems and difficulties encountered within orphanages, foster care, and ultimately the adoption of a dependent child that need be addressed by current policy. History The social issue of childhood abandonment has been prevalent throughout history and is quite possibly the most extreme form of child neglect. There have been accounts in ancient Greece, from the Hebrews, from Europe and many other ancient civilizations (Burnstein, 1981). In the book History of Childhood (1974), author Lloyd Demause, concluded that love for children did not exist in ancient society; he stated child abandonment was common among the poor until the fourth-century B.C. Perhaps one of the earliest documentations of child physical abandonment is with Moses, who was left by his mother in a conscious effort to save his life (Burnstein, 1981, p. 214). Childhood abandonment can be seen in virtually every society. As early as the colonization of North America, homeless, orphaned children were already running rampant. As much of the literature illustrates, social planning for childhood abandonment was not considered a problem until the nineteenth-century. LeRoy Ashby notes in his book Endangered Children: Dependency Neglect and Abuse in American History (1997), concerns about endangered and needy children have been particularly evident during times of social stress (p. 2). He also notes that most often those who discovered childhood abandonment were only concerned of the disorder and squalor of the growing cities and not the children themselves (Ashby, 1997). This is because children were the hope-or threat-of the future and thus need to be protected (Trattner, 1998). The recognition of neglect like child abandonment was not seen in North America for some time, mostly due to the fact that children remained indentured servants and property of their parents; childhood was not considered a crucial development phase (Trattner, 1998). A transformative view of children came in the 1700s when society beg an to see children as innocents whoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦deserved special attention and protection (Ashby, 1997, p.16). Much of the initial response by the colonies in child welfare matters was the result of the 1601 Elizabethan Poor Law, which had significant implications for dependent children (Ashby, 1997). Similarly, the doctrine of parens patriae affirmed the state is the ultimate parent of every child (Ratliff, 2000). However, throughout the colonial and early national times, the extent of laws against child neglect crimes, and furthermore social planning for dependent children, remained rather unclear. Some literature suggests that abandoned children have always been a concern in this country, but this fact is not well documented. The social problem of planning for these neglected children is not well recorded or detailed by any particular person or group of individuals seeing as its existence dates as far back to the earliest man. From the time of mans arrival in the western world, indenture and outdoor relief dominated the seventeenth- and eighteenth-centuries policies regarding child dependency (Ashby, 1997, p. 14). However, for orphan and needy children in the 1700s, officials, fellow citizens, and familial networks responded with sympathy and concern; although their first interest remained with their own families and affairs (Ashby, 1997). Almshouses were established few and far between in the 1700s as small, emergency-only, traditional forms of child welfare (Ashby, 1997). The introduction of such almshouses and orphanages demonstrated that, by the nineteenth-century, new res ponses to child dependency were apparent. Many social work researchers would attribute the recognition of the social planning for dependent children to early-nineteenth century reformers who saw children as the possibility for constructive altruism (Trattner, 1998, p. 108). It was at this time that the child welfare movement swept into the beginning of the twentieth-century (Trattner, 1998). Although indenture systems were the way of early colonial times, they also contained suggestions of child welfare strategies which integrated a shift in values towards foster care and adoption (Ashby, 1997). Values Societal Institutional Arrangements Values played a large role in identifying both the problem and possible resolutions with the issue of social planning for abandoned children in early America. First, the sensitive realization of children as more than property has been essential to the steps toward planning for dependent, neglected children. A change in early America came when society began to recognize children as posing a sort of social problem [that can]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦produce legal responses (Dingwall, Eekelaar, Murray, 1984, p. 208). Charles Brace, the nineteenth-centurys most effective helper of children on the streets, was quoted in saying the child, most of all, needs individual care and sympathy (Olasky, 1994, p. 46). Although Brace is cited much more recently in the literature on dependent child, his thoughts and values are the same upon which the first institutions combating child dependency were founded. In addition, Fredrich Froebel posed that children needed to exercise their minds and bodies (Trattner, 1998, p. 111). Reformers began initiating institutions, such as the orphan asylum, as a solution for the mounting crisis of parentless children (Ashby, 1997). Society had finally begun to recognize the special needs of children and unearthed a new concern for the best interests of the child. The recognition of family values and the family as an elemental social institution also helped interventions, which came about on behalf of the welfare of the child. Charles Braces goal was to find adoptive homes for the orphans to get them under the combination of love and discipline that parents can provide (Olasky, 1994, p. 46). Childhood abandonment is actually first mentioned in the literature in relation to providing basic care for parentless children (Burnstein, 1981, p. 214). Herein lies the fact that social planning for abandoned children has been an issue for many years. In 1729 the first orphanages in the United States were founded by nuns to provide care for a group of children whose parents died in an Indian massacre (Lewis Solnit, 1975). This institution, as well as many others that have since developed, served as a somewhat replacement family for poor neglected children. In some instances, almshouses served to keep poverty stricken families together, allowing families , most often mothers and children, to sleep in the same ward (Ashby, 1997). Many more social agencies similar to these were formed all over North America throughout the 1800s. Another value set forth in this revolutionizing era was that of reforming poverty and unrest in society. Children sheltered in the orphanages were supposed to learn virtue and pietyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦industry and cleanliness, they were educated and taught the importance of hard work (Ashby, 1997, p. 17). Religious values were also on the rise at this time; evangelical religious beliefs and humanitarian attitudes began sweeping across America (Trattner, 1998). Of the 150 orphanages founded between 1820 and 1850, nearly all were tied to religious groups (Ashby, 1997). The combination of the familial, societal, and religious values assisted in the institutions established for the abandoned children in society. Both the values and social institutional arrangements have influenced the understanding of this problem. Family, one of the most fundamental institutional arrangements for a young impressionable child, is nonexistent to an orphan. This has contributed to our understanding that each child is entitled to grow up within a family, they need a safe, nurturing environment with at least one adult figure (Rosenberg, 1992, p. 171). As a society that respects the welfare of children, it is thus the responsibility of individuals to set up well-running safe havens for these orphans. Furthermore, it is societys responsibility to provide the utmost care and protection for neglected, dependent children; whether this is in an orphanage, foster care, or with an adoptive family (Rosenberg, 1992). Due to the familial focus of the almshouses and orphanages, society further realizes that these small, drab institutions are no place for a dependent child to spend their entire young life. Institutions set f orth to house dependent children, as described previously, were intended to provide basic care for parentless children. Furthermore, it thus comes to ones attention that these institutions can quickly become overcrowded and fall short of a real family. Many almshouses, as described by historians and social work researchers, were vile catchalls for victims of every sort of misery [and] misfortuneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦herded together and badly mistreated (Trattner, 1998, p. 113). In fact, most orphanages began as temporary homes for children who had lost one or both parents (Ashby, 1997). This raises the question of what to do once institutions wont suffice as home to an orphaned child or is not a safe place for a youth to reside in; the issues with social planning for orphaned children are wide-ranging and never ceasing. Our understanding, therefore, is that the social planning for dependent children needs revamping. Further Descriptions of the Problem The problem of childhood abandonment affects over 400 million children who live on their own on the streets of hundreds of cities around the world (ISK). The Department of Social Welfare and Development documents over 100 abandoned children turned over to them every 2 months (100 kids abandoned every 2 months). It has also been recorded that a child becomes an orphan every 2 seconds, leaving the number of dependent children looking for families and homes at an alarming, increasing rate (ISK). The population most affected by the social planning for abandoned children is most directly the orphans themselves; however, the problem also affects society at large. With an ever increasing number of dependents, the state has an obligation to care for the growing number of parentless children. Organizations and institutions must sustain their moral values and keep up their work while at the same time receiving and/or raising adequate funds (Rosenberg, 1992). Agencies can often wither away from lack of finances and loss of morale; it is important to remember the welfare of the child and attempt to sustain almshouses, orphanages, and foster homes (Dingwall, Eekelaar, Murray, 1984). Mothers of abandoned children are also being affected, psychologically and emotionally, dealing with the loss of a child they could not afford, did not plan for, or simply could not keep. The future of society is also affected, many fear that if the practice and policy surrounding child welfare does not improve, it is feared that the destiny of America is a national catastrophe; after all, children, even dependent, neglected, and poor children, are todays future (Trattner, 1998). The problem of social planning for abandoned children is namely impacted socioeconomically, by societal values, and by power, or lack thereof. The problem of childhood abandonment tends to persist most often when mothers are frightened that they simply cannot provide for their offspring (Burnstein, 1981). In this case, they will desert the child due to a lack of resources to sustain the childs well-being. Similarly, the state struggles to afford the cost of the ever increasing number of orphans who are turned over to their care (Dingwall, Eekelaar, Murray, 1984). The issue is initially presented, however, because society values family and the protection of parentless children. Furthermore, lack of power in society, related with economic problems can create a less than desirable outcome for caring for these dependent children. Varying child welfare agencies including almshouses and orphanages have continually struggled for funds to support orphan children, and furthermore, foster hom es are few and far between for a variety of reasons. There is a serious lack of families willing and wanting to adopt, therefore leaving orphans to permanently reside in institutions that were meant to be only temporary. The problem of social planning for the abandoned child originated mainly because of the lack of sufficient funds and the power to raise these funds. It is difficult to make a difference, or even bring the problem to the attention of powerful individuals that could make a difference, thus perpetuating the issue. Societal values, as mentioned before, have contributed to the impact of childhood abandonment; family values and the welfare of society are both concerns that sparked the onset of social planning for dependent, neglected children (Ashby, 1997). Societys Response to the Problem In response to the problem of social planning for abandoned children society has long had a desire to help the immense number of boys and girls floating and drifting about our streets (Ashby, 1997, p. 39). In terms of governmental action, several policies have been designed to remedy the social problem. From the year 1641, legislation has continually been passed to protect the rights and lives of innocent dependent children (Ashby, 1997). In the 1700s dependent children and orphans were not cared for but, on the other hand, were considered indentured work for families (Ashby, 1997). The first establishment of orphanages, as stated previously, came about from religious institutions in the 1800s; half a century later, concern about growing up in orphanages, private agencies began placing orphans in foster families (Murray Gesiriech, 2004). Starting in the early 1900s, the first state laws preventing child abuse and neglect were passed and the first federal childrens bureau was establi shed (Murray Gesiriech, 2004). Mainly, the transformation of social services at the start of the early 1960s has affected the social planning for dependent children (Gilbert Terrell, 2010). Since the first gain of financial support in 1962, there have been changes concerning social allocations, both selective and universal, aid in functioning and economic independence in families, income maintenance, and financial grants for services (Gilbert Terrell, 2010). However, most of the continual of these policies focus has been on maintaining the family unit (Gilbert Terrell, 2010). The Social Security Act of 1935 authorized the first federal grants for child welfare services, under what later came to be known as Subpart 1 of Title IV-B of the Social Security Act (Murray Gesiriech, 2004). More recently, in 2008, the Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008, P.L. 110-351 was enacted. The purpose of the Act is to amend certain aspects of Title IV-B (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) of the Social Security Act in order to connect and support relative caregivers, improve outcomes for children in foster care, provide for tribal foster care and adoption access, improve incentives for adoption, and for other purposes (Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008). The major provisions of the Act are as follows: Allowed states to provide payments, and Medicaid, for kinship guardianship assistance under title IV-E for children whose relatives were taking legal guardianship and hence removing them from foster care Provided stricter criminal background checks, including child abuse and neglect registry checks of relative guardians, and adults living in the guardians home. Allowed services to continue for youth who left foster care, kinship guardianship, or adoption after age 16 by amending the Chafee Foster Care Independence Program Helped at-risk children in foster care reconnect with family members through a variety of programs authorized by grants to state, local, and tribal child welfare agencies and Doubled the incentive payment amounts for special needs adoptions to $4,000 and older child adoptions to $8,000 by extending the Adoption Incentive Program to the year 2013 Obliged child welfare agencies to notify all adult relatives of a child within 30 days of their removal and inform them of the options to become a placement resource for the child, and also required siblings to attempt to be put in the same placement Required that all children receiving foster care, adoption, or guardianship payment to be enlisted in school full-time unless they were otherwise incapable due to a documented medical condition Demanded the integration of healthcare services for children in foster care, including dental services and mental health Required that caseworkers develop a personalized transition plan as directed by the child, 90 days prior to the childs emancipation (Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008) The coordination and focus of this policy, along with other statutes currently in place to combat the issue of social planning for abandoned children alleviates some of the adverse effects on the children. In conclusion, the problem of the increasing number of abandoned children is neither a new issue, nor is the concern of social planning for orphans something newly relevant to the times. The historical overview of the social problem, including who first identified the issue, can provide a context with which to understand and provide groundwork for new directions possible in practice and policy. By examining the role of values and societal institutional arrangements, the problem can be better understood and combatted.